DEPOIS MELHORA WHY THE HEAD SHOULD LEAD THE BODY 
KATHLEEN O’CONNOR 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT DAVIS/HARVARD UNIVERSITY 
ERIKA BOURGIGNON IN HER 1976 WORK ON POSSESSION LENDS ME FRAME FOR THIS PAPER WHEN SHE WRITES THAT “POSSESSION ONLY EXISTS IN SOCIETIES WHERE BELIEF IN POSSESSION ALSO EXISTS.” I WOULD ARGUE THAT THIS STATEMENT IS AT ONCE TRUE AND UNTRUE; TRUE BECAUSE ALTERATIONS IN CONSCIOUSNESS ARE INTERPRETED LOCALLY AND WHAT MIGHT BE UNDERSTOOD POSSESSION IN ONE PLACE BECOMES MULTIPLE PERSONALITY DISORDER IN ANOTHER. BOURGIGNON DID NOT ANTICIPATE THAT THIRTY YEARS LATER THE TERM “SOCIETIES” CAN LONGER BE STRETCHED TO INCLUDE DIVERSE TRANSPLANTED LOCAL WORLDS IN THE SAME GEOGRAPHICAL AREA; SOCIETY IS LONGER HOMOGENEOUS BUT INSTEAD COMPRISED OF SEMIOSCAPES (FOLLOWING APPADURAI) CONTIGUOUS AND OVERLAPPING SEMIOTIC FRAMES WITHIN ONE GEOGRAPHICAL AREA OR WITHIN WIDELY SCATTERED DIASPORIC ENCLAVES THAT THEMSELVES NOT REMAIN UNTOUCHED BY THE SEMIOTIC FRAMES OF THEIR NEW LOCAL WORLDS. MY RESEARCH IN BAHIA BRAZIL OVER THREE YEARS ON COMPARISON OF PSYCHIATRY AND THE POSSESSION TRANCE RELIGION CANDOMBLE SHOWED ME THAT NOT ONLY CAN SPIRITUAL DIAGNOSIS SUCH SPIRIT POSSESSION EXIST IN SITES WHERE IT WOULD NOT BE EXPECTED SUCH THE PUBLIC PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL ITS MEANING CAN BE APPROPRIATED AND EMPLOYED IN MENTAL HEALTH CARE AMONG WESTERN EDUCATED PRACTITIONERS. 
IN MY RESEARCH IN BAHIA I COMPARED TWO LOCAL HEALING SYSTEMS PSYCHIATRY IN THE PUBLIC-CARE HOSPITAL SETTING AND CANDOMBLE AN AFRO-BRAZILIAN POSSESSION TRANCE RELIGION. BETWEEN 2000 AND 2003 I WORKED IN SALVADOR BAHIA LIVING ON FOUR SEPARATE COMPOUNDS OF CANDOMBLE. I PARTICIPATED IN ALL ACTIVITIES INCLUDING RITUAL EVENTS BUT ALSO MUNDANE DAILY ACTIVITIES WHICH TAKE UP MOST OF THE TIME SPENT IN SPRAWLING HOUSE AND GROUNDS OCCUPIED BY ANYWHERE FROM EIGHT TO HUNDRED PEOPLE. I ALSO SPENT YEAR INTERVIEWING LOW INCOME OUTPATIENTS AND THEIR FAMILIES AT PUBLIC CARE PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL. IN BAHIA I FOUND LIVELY COLLABORATION BETWEEN CANDOMBLE AND PSYCHIATRISTS WHO EXCHANGED CLIENTS REFERRALS PRACTICES AND SPACES WITH CASUAL PRAGMATISM THAT IS UNTHINKABLE IN THE UNITED STATES. IN THIS SUGGESTIVE COMPARISON OF HEALING I LEARNED THAT NOTIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE INTERPRETATION OF PROBLEMS OF THE MIND DEFY THE CARTESIAN BOUNDARIES OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION AND HOW BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF LOCAL IDEOLOGIES OF ILLNESS HAS THE POTENTIAL TO MAKE PSYCHIATRIC INTERVENTION MORE EFFECTIVE. 
AMONG LOW-INCOME RESIDENTS OF SALVADOR BAHIA BRAZIL MENTAL HEALTH CARE IS AVAILABLE THROUGH THE STATE-FUNDED UNIVERSAL HEALTH CARE SYSTEM OR THROUGH LOCAL ALTERNATIVES TO PSYCHIATRIC CARE INCLUDING CANDOMBLE. WHILE PUBLIC PSYCHIATRIC CARE IS BASED IN BIOMEDICAL ORIENTATION CANDOMBLE PRACTITIONERS VIEW MANY APPARENT MENTAL HEALTH DISTURBANCES SPIRITUAL AND TREAT SUFFERERS THROUGH RITUAL AND THROUGH COGNITIVE REFRAMING PROCESS SIMILAR TO COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY THAT IN EFFECT RESHAPES CONSCIOUSNESS THROUGH SUFFERER’S PROACTIVE INDIVIDUAL EFFORTS. COMMONLY HEARD MAXIM FOR EXAMPLE IS “E ASSIM MESMO DEPOIS MELHORA” THAT’S THE WAY IT IS AND THEN IT GETS BETTER; AN ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF THE TROUBLED NOW WITH POSITIVE OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE; MOVING FORWARD LIFE CAN ONLY IMPROVE. 
PSYCHIATRIC CARE UNDER BRAZIL’S UNIVERSAL HEALTH CARE SYSTEM WHICH PRIMARILY SERVES THE POOR PROVIDES ONLY FOR PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALIZATION AND OUTPATIENT TREATMENT WITH MEDICATIONS. THESE ARE UTILIZED FOR THE MOST PART IN CASES OF EMERGENCY WHERE PERSON HAS LOST CONTROL OF AN UNRULY CONSCIOUSNESS TO THE POINT THAT OTHERS INTERCEDE. EXPLANATORY METAPHORS FOR MALAISE ARE SHARED ON CLASS BASIS BETWEEN LOW INCOME PATIENTS WHO UTILIZE THE PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL AND CLIENTS OF CANDOMBLE LOW-INCOME PATIENTS ARE EXCLUDED FROM ELITE MEDICAL DISCOURSE AND MAKE SENSE OF THEIR ILLNESS EXPERIENCES THROUGH LOCAL AFRO-BRAZILIAN CONCEPTUAL SYSTEMS. PSYCHIATRIC CARE FOR THE POOR IS THUS TRANSFORMED INTO AN EMPOWERED MAGICAL DISCOURSE WITH CONSCIOUSNESS-ALTERING PSYCHOPHARMACEUTICALS THE PRIMARY METAPHOR FOR WELLNESS. I ARGUE HERE THAT THE BIOMEDICAL ORIENTATION IN PSYCHIATRY ATTEMPTS TO RESOLVE PROBLEMS OF THE MIND BY TREATING THE BODY SHIFTING CAUSALITY FROM DISORDERED CONSCIOUSNESS ONTO MALFUNCTIONING BODY THUS LOCATING CONSCIOUSNESS IN BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES; PROBLEMATIC CONSCIOUSNESS IN DOPAMINE IMBALANCES AND MISFIRING SYNAPSES THAT CAN BE CONTROLLED BUT NOT HEALED BY PSYCHOPHARMACEUTICALS IN THE SAME WAY THAT DIABETES IS CONTROLLED BY INSULIN. 
PROBLEM THAT PRESENTS ITSELF IN BAHIA MIGHT BEAR FAMILY RESEMBLANCE TO MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEM FROM DEPRESSION TO PSYCHOSIS. UNLIKE STEPHEN AND SURYANI’S ARGUMENT THAT BALINESE SHAMANS OFTEN BEGIN THEIR CAREER WITH PSYCHOTIC EPISODE AND THAT THIS IS IN PART WHAT IDENTIFIES POTENTIAL SHAMAN PROBLEMS IN CANDOMBLE ARE REGARDED WITH MUCH CONCERN THE MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES THAT THEY RESEMBLE HEALTH ISSUES TO BE RESOLVED. IN MY RESEARCH I EXAMINED STRATEGIES OF HEALING IN CANDOMBLE AND HOW INDIVIDUALS ARE TRACKED INTO ONE HEALING DISCOURSE OR THE OTHER; I FOUND THAT THIS TRACKING DEPENDS ON THE ORIENTATION OF THE THERAPY MANAGEMENT GROUP OR TRIAGE ACTORS. FURTHER I BEGAN TO WONDER IF THERE MIGHT NOT BE FRAMES OF HEALING IN CANDOMBLE THAT COULD BE GENERALIZABLE TO OTHER STRATEGIES SUCH PSYCHIATRY AND FOUND GREAT DEAL OF PARALLELS BETWEEN THE TWO. 
THE DISCOURSE OF HEALTH IN CANDOMBLE CONFOUNDS THE WESTERN BINARY UNDERSTANDING OF MIND AND BODY. BROWN WRITING ON HAITIAN VODOUN ARGUES THAT HEALING IN THIS NEIGHBORING TRADITION CAN BE INTERPRETED THE HEALING OF RELATIONSHIPS. I EXPAND ON THIS NOTION WITH REGARD TO CANDOMBLE UNDERSTANDING “RELATIONSHIPS” TO BE NOT LIMITED TO RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PEOPLE BUT TO INCLUDE ALSO RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND HISTORY PEOPLE AND SOCIETY; RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND THE DIVINITIES ORIXAS EXU THE DEITY OF INDETERMINACY AND THE DEAD; RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MATERIA AND ESPIRITO (MATTER AND SPIRIT); RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SEVERAL CONSCIOUSNESSES IN THE SAME HEAD; RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE ORI AND THE ELEDA THE HEAD AND THE INTEGRATED ORIXA; ALL OF WHICH WHEN DISRUPTED CAN CAUSE SPIRITUAL PROBLEMS MASQUERADING MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES WELL THE PHYSICAL ILLNESSES THAT BROWN CONSIDERS IN HER BOOK. IN CANDOMBLE MATERIA AND ESPIRITO NOT QUITE MAP ONTO BODY AND MIND BUT RATHER SIGNIFY THE PHYSICAL AND THE NON-PHYSICAL; THE PHYSICAL BODY AND THE SPIRITUAL SELF CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE DIVINE. THE NON-PHYSICAL IS SIGNIFIED BY THE HEAD OR ORI WHICH CONTAINS THE SPIRIT OR FUTURE ANCESTOR AND THE DIVINITY THE ORIXA. THESE ELEMENTS MUST BE INTEGRATED FOR FULL HEALTH. THE ORI REPRESENTED BY THE PHYSICAL HEAD CONTAINS WITHIN IT BOTH DESTINY AND THE LOCATION OF THE ORIXA IN THE BODY. 
THE HEAD IS THEREFORE THE PHYSICAL HEAD PART OF THE PHYSICAL BODY BUT ALSO THE METAPHORICAL HEAD CONSCIOUSNESS OR CONSCIOUSNESSES THE DIVINE DESTINY. WHEN THESE ELEMENTS ARE NOT INTEGRATED INSTABILITY OR DIS-EQUILIBRIUM DESEQUILIBRIO RESULTS MANIFESTED APPARENT MENTAL ILLNESS WHICH IS UNDERSTOOD IN CANDOMBLE SPIRITUAL PROBLEM OF DIS-INTEGRATION. 
	THE HEAD IS ALSO THE LOCATION OF WISDOM OF MOOD OF SKILL OF THE WILL AND OF EMOTION IN BAHIAN DISCOURSE. CABECA QUENTE HOT HEAD CAN REFER TO IRRITABILITY AND ANGER BUT ALSO TO BEING DISTRAUGHT ANGUISHED INCONSOLABLE PSYCHOTIC. ITS OPPOSITE CABECA FRIA THE DESIRABLE CALM LOGICAL RATIONAL IS USUALLY SPOKEN OF HEALING PROCESS ESFRIAR CABECA TO COOL THE HEAD RATHER THAN AN AFFECTIVE STATE. COMMON PHRASE “EU NAO TENHO CABECA POR ISSO” (LITERALLY I DON’T HAVE THE HEAD FOR THIS) CAN MEAN THAT SOMEONE ISN’T IN THE MOOD TO SOMETHING OR THAT SHE DOESN’T FEEL SHE HAS THE SKILL TO SOMETHING. FOR EXAMPLE EU NAO TENHO CABECA POR MATEMATICA – I’M NOT GOOD AT MATH OR EU NAO TENHO CABECA LIDAR 
WHAT MATTERS IN CANDOMBLE IS THE HEAD. THE HEAD DIRECTS BEHAVIOR. THE HEAD IS OR SHOULD BE IN CONTROL. THERE IS SAYING IN THE DIVINATION LITERATURE THAT THE DOG HAS FOUR LEGS BUT ONLY ONE HEAD MEANING THE BODY IS CONTROLLED BY THE HEAD THE BODY SHOULD FOLLOW WHERE THE HEAD LEADS. THE HEAD FACES FORWARD MOVES FORWARD; METAPHOR FOR THOUGHTFUL BEHAVIOR AND CHOICES; SELF-REALIZATION; PERSONAL GROWTH; CORRECT AND ETHICAL ACTION; WELLNESS OR BECOMING WELL; AND DESTINY DESTINY THAT CAN BE ADVANCED OR AMELIORATED BY THE HEAD. WHEN NOT MOVING FORWARD THE HEAD IS NOT IN EQUILIBRIUM; IT IS MISDIRECTED BAD HEAD LOST HEAD; METAPHOR OF ILLNESS. 
THE YORUBA TERM KOLORI – (KO = NOT OL = OWNER OF ORI = THE HEAD) IS LOCAL SIGNIFIER OF MADNESS MEANING THAT THE INDIVIDUAL IS NOT THE OWNER OF THE HEAD NOT IN CONTROL OF HIS OR HER OWN HEAD CONSCIOUSNESS OR DESTINY. IN CANDOMBLE THE INDIVIDUAL IS IN FACT NOT THE SOLE “OWNER” OF HIS OR HER OWN HEAD BUT RATHER THE HEAD IS SHARED; CO-OWNED WITH THE ORIXA WHOSE STRUCTURED POSSESSION OF THAT HEAD IS ENCOURAGED AND FACILITATED THROUGH PERIODS OF TRAINING. INDIVIDUALS ARE EXPECTED TO CONTROL AT LEAST THEIR OWN CONSCIOUSNESS WHILE LEARNING TO ALLOW OTHER CONSCIOUSNESSES TO EMERGE. AN INITIATE ASSUMES THE IDENTITY OF PORTADOR ORIXA CARRIER OF THE ORIXA – THE INITIATE CARRIES THE ORIXA IN HIS OR HER HEAD AND CONCOMITANTLY TWO OR MORE SEPARATE CONSCIOUSNESSES OCCUPY ONE HEAD. SPIRITUAL PROBLEMS MASQUERADING MENTAL ILLNESS RESULT WHEN THESE CONSCIOUSNESSES ARE NOT IN EQUILIBRIUM. CANDOMBLE RITUAL PROCESSES ARE GEARED TOWARD INTEGRATING AND BALANCING THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CONSCIOUSNESSES IN SINGLE HEAD. 
THE HEAD MUST BE TREATED WITH SPECIAL CARE. ACTIVITIES ARE CIRCUMSCRIBED WITH REGARD TO THE HEAD TO SLEEP WITH THE HEAD AWAY FROM THE DOOR THAT LEADS TO THE STREET; TO LOWER THE HEAD IN THE PRESENCE OF ELDERS OR OF THE ORIXA; TO REFRAIN FROM WEARING DARK HATS OR HAIR ORNAMENTS; TO AVOID ALLOWING RAIN SUN OR MOONLIGHT TO FALL ON THE HEAD (ALTHOUGH THESE PROSCRIPTIONS ARE NOT SCRUPULOUSLY OBSERVED IN THE TROPICAL CLIMATE OF BAHIA); TO CHOOSE CAREFULLY THE PERSON WHO WILL CUT THE HAIR OR PERFORM GROOMING SERVICES ON THE HEAD. EATING CRAB IS PROSCRIBED BECAUSE THE CRAB DOES NOT MOVE FORWARD; IT WALKS SIDEWAYS. SOME CANDOMBLE PRACTITIONERS MAY NOT DRINK ALCOHOL AND RECREATIONAL DRUGS ARE TO BE AVOIDED ALTHOUGH AGAIN THESE PROSCRIPTIONS ARE NOT ALWAYS ADHERED TO. EVEN COFFEE CIGARETTES AND PRESCRIPTION DRUGS ARE SUSPENDED DURING RITUALS TO MAINTAIN THE GREATEST PURITY IN THE HEAD. DRUG AND ALCOHOL DEPENDENCY ARE CONSIDERED AN AGGRESSION AGAINST NATURE DELIBERATE DEFILING OF THE ORI THAT TRANSLATES TO DELIBERATE AGGRESSION AGAINST THE ORIXA. 
BECAUSE OF THE PRESENCE OF THE ORIXA IN THE HEAD CANDOMBLE INITIATES CAN NEVER BE CONSIDERED LOUCO MENTALLY ILL. LOUCURA UNDERSTOOD PERMANENT PSYCHIATRIC ILLNESS IS DISTINGUISHED FROM SPIRITUAL PROBLEMS THROUGH LONG PERIODS OF OBSERVATION OF THE SUFFERING INDIVIDUAL AND ALSO THROUGH DIVINATION. SPIRITUAL PROBLEMS ARE CALLED PROBLEMAS SANTO PROBLEMS WITH THE SAINT OR ORIXA; GLOSSED COISAS PRA FAZER THINGS TO METAPHOR FOR UNFULFILLED OR PENDING RITUAL OBLIGATIONS; COMPROMISSO AND RESPONSIBILIDADE OBLIGATION AND RESPONSIBILITY; TO CUIDAR ORIXAS AN OBLIGATION TO CARE FOR THE ORIXAS. SPIRITUAL PROBLEMS ARE UNDERSTOOD IN TERMS OF RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES TO THE DIVINE WHICH WHEN LEFT UNFULFILLED CAN CAUSE APPARENT MENTAL ILLNESS DIAGNOSED WHEN PROBLEM MANIFESTS ITSELF SUCH PASSANDO SANTO RUA RECEIVING THE ORIXA “IN THE STREET” OR OUT OF THE APPROPRIATE RITUAL CONTEXT. HERE THE METAPHOR OF THE STREET REFERS TO BEING OUT OF PLACE OUTSIDE THE SAFETY OF THE HOME IN THE SPACE OF EXU THE DEITY OF THINGS UNCONTROLLED AND UNCONTROLLABLE OF ACCIDENTS OF VIOLENCE AND DANGER. I INTERVIEWED NOT FEW CANDOMBLE INITIATES WHO HAD HAD THAT EXPERIENCE AND WOKE UP TO FIND THEMSELVES IN PSYCHIATRIC EMERGENCY WARDS. 
	METAPHORS OF MALAISE THAT ARE SHARED ON CLASS BASIS AMONG THE POOR IN BAHIA ALSO REFER TO THE HEAD PROBLEMAS CABECA HEAD PROBLEMS. PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS OFFERED EXPLANATORY MODELS THAT FEATURED DISCOURSE OF PROBLEMS RATHER THAN ILLNESSES COMPLEMENTING DISCOURSE OF WELLNESS THAT DOMINATED INTERACTIONS OUTSIDE THE HOSPITAL. PATIENTS RECOUNTED HEAD PROBLEMS HEAD TRAUMA NERVE PROBLEMS ONLY OCCASIONALLY “MENTAL” PROBLEMS. I ALSO HEARD ABOUT PERTURBED HEADS OF PERTURBACAO AND GETTING MESSED UP OR HELD BACK ATRAPALHACAO METAPHORS OF MALAISE THAT ARE SHARED WITH CANDOMBLE EXPLANATORY MODELS. COMPLAINTS OF SOMATICIZATION WERE OVERWHELMINGLY LOCATED IN THE HEAD SUCH DIZZINESS AND HEADACHES. MANY PATIENTS REPORTED FEELING NERVOSO WHICH CAN BE BOTH SYMPTOM AND AN EXPLANATORY MODEL AND CAN MEAN ANYTHING FROM ANXIOUS AND IRRITABLE TO EUPHEMISTICALLY REFERRING TO PSYCHOTIC BEHAVIOR – IN EVEN THE MOST COLLOQUIAL USAGE BEING NERVOSO IS UNHEALTHFUL SOMETHING TO BE AVOIDED OR CHANGED THROUGH COGNITIVE STRATEGIES. 
PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS WERE LEFT TO THEMSELVES TO DEVELOP EXPLANATORY MODELS OF THEIR MALAISE. MORE THAN HALF OF THE 200 PATIENTS I INTERVIEWED CLAIMED TO HAVE IDEA WHAT WAS WRONG WITH THEM AND I DISCOVERED THAT BAHIAN PUBLIC CARE PSYCHIATRISTS GENERALLY NOT SHARE DIAGNOSES WITH PATIENTS WHEN I ASKED SOME DOCTORS CLAIMED THAT PATIENTS NOT HAVE THE EDUCATION TO UNDERSTAND. WHEN PATIENTS SHOWED ME THEIR CHARTS AND I COULD SEE FOR MYSELF WHAT THEIR DIAGNOSES WERE I SAW THAT THEY WERE RIGHT AMBIGUOUS IMPOSED LABELS SUCH TRANSTORNO MENTAL MENTAL CRISIS DOENCA MENTAL MENTAL ILLNESS AND THE MAGICAL HIEROGLYPHS OF ICD CODES WERE NOT VERY REVEALING.	 
	AND YET MANY OF THESE SAME PSYCHIATRISTS ENGAGED IN REGULAR CODE-SWITCHING PRACTICING MEMBERS OF CANDOMBLE. I OFTEN HEARD FROM PSYCHIATRIC PROFESSIONALS THAT MAJORITY OF PATIENTS IN THE HOSPITALS WERE REALLY SUFFERING FROM SPIRITUAL ILLNESSES BETTER TREATED BY SPIRITUAL STRATEGIES SUCH CANDOMBLE. DOCTORS DESCRIBED TO ME TREATMENT PRACTICES IN WHICH THEY APPROPRIATED THE SEMIOTIC FRAMES OF CANDOMBLE AND EVEN RITUAL PRACTICES TO COMPLEMENT PSYCHIATRIC TREATMENT. ONE PSYCHIATRIST DESCRIBED THE GOAL OF TREATMENT IN CANDOMBLE TERMS INTEGRATION AND RE-INTEGRATION OF THE PATIENT WITH HIS OR HER FAMILY AND COMMUNITY METONYM OF INTEGRATION OF THE SUFFERER WITH HER ORI AND OF HER CONSCIOUSNESSES WITH HER BODY AND HEAD. OUTSIDE THE CONTEXT OF THE HOSPITAL MANY MEDICAL PROFESSIONALS PARTICIPATE IN CANDOMBLE GROUPS INITIATES SERVING MEDIATORS BETWEEN CANDOMBLE AND THE LARGER SOCIETY. THEY COLLABORATE WITH RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONALS TO RESOLVE POTENTIAL MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES AMONG SUFFERING MEMBERS OF THE GROUP. IN THE CONTEXT OF CANDOMBLE RITUAL AND PRACTICE HOWEVER PSYCHIATRIC DISCOURSE IS SUBORNED. MUCH PSYCHIATRISTS INCORPORATE METAPHORS EXPLANATORY MODELS AND EVEN RITUAL PRACTICES OF CANDOMBLE INTO THEIR HOSPITAL PRACTICES PSYCHIATRIC DISCOURSE IS EXCLUDED FROM THE SPACE OF RITUAL. 
	WHAT I FOUND INTRIGUING IN BAHIA WAS AN OPENNESS TO CONSIDER AND UTILIZE OPPOSING FRAMES OF WELLNESS AND ILLNESS IN MENTAL HEALTH CARE. WE KNOW THAT MANY MENTAL ILLNESSES ARE TRANSITORY AND REMEDIABLE WITHOUT CHEMICAL OR EVEN PSYCHIATRIC INTERVENTION. WE ALSO KNOW THAT THE MIND AND CONSCIOUSNESS HAS GREAT DEAL OF POWER TO REFRAME ITSELF AND CAUSE CONCOMITANT EFFECTS IN BODILY RESPONSES SUCH IN COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY ON THE POSITIVE SIDE AND KINDLING AND EXPRESSED EMOTION ON THE NEGATIVE SIDE. THE NOTION THAT SOME MENTAL ILLNESSES MAY HAVE SPIRITUAL CAUSES SUCH THE CASE OF PSYCHIATRIC OUTPATIENT I INTERVIEWED WHO WAS BEING TREATED FOR DEPRESSION BECAUSE HER HUSBAND WAS BEATING HER (WHO IS THE CRAZY PERSON IN THAT SCENARIO AFTER ALL ) BEGAN TO SEEM MORE QUESTION OF LINGUISTIC FRAMES RATHER THAN MEDICAL CERTAINTY. MY RESEARCH ON CANDOMBLE AND THE LINGUISTIC FRAMES OF THE POOR INCLUDING UNDERSTANDINGS OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE HEAD THE LOCATION OF POWER OVER THE BODY UNDERSCORED THE PROMISE OF CULTURALLY-COMPETENT NON-PHARMACEUTICAL STRATEGIES IN MENTAL HEALTH CARE AND SUGGESTED POTENTIAL DIRECTIONS FOR THERAPIES IN OUR INCREASINGLY GLOBALIZED WORLD. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
AINSWORTH-VAUGHN NANCY. 1994. “IS THAT RHETORICAL QUESTION AMBIGUITY AND POWER IN MEDICAL DISCOURSE.” JOURNAL OF LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY 4(2) 194-214. 
ALESSI NEIRY PRIMO ET AL. 1994. SAUDE TRABALHO SISTEMA UNICO SAUDE. SAO PAULO HUCITEC. 
ALMEIDA FILHO NAOMAR MONTEIRO. 1998. “BECOMING MODERN AFTER ALL THESE YEARS SOCIAL CHANGE AND MENTAL HEALTH IN LATIN AMERICA.” CULTURE MEDICINE AND PSYCHIATRY 22 285-316. 
--	1981. CLASS MIGRATION AND MENTAL DISORDERS IN BAHIA BRAZIL. PH.D. THESIS UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA CHAPEL HILL. 
ALMEIDA FILHO NAOMAR ET AL. 2004. “SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS IN BAHIA BRAZIL INTERACTIONS OF GENDER ETHNICITY AND SOCIAL CLASS.” SOCIAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE 59 7 1339-1353. 
APPADURAI ARJUN. 1996. MODERNITY AT LARGE. MINNEAPOLIS UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA PRESS. 
ASAD TALAL. 1993. GENEALOGIES OF RELIGION. BALTIMORE AND LONDON JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
AUGRAS MONIQUE. 1995. PSICOLOGIA CULTURA ALTERIDADE DOMINACAO BRASIL. RIO JANEIRO NAU. 
--	1983. DUPLO METAMORPHOSE. PETROPOLIS BRAZIL VOZES. 
AUSTIN J.L. 1997 (1962). HOW TO THINGS WITH WORDS. CAMBRIDGE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
AZEVEDO STELLA AND CLEO MARTINS. 1988. DAI ACONTECEU ENCANTO. SALVADOR BAHIA AXE OPO AFONJA. 
BAER HANS. 1985. “MEDICINE CAPITALISM AND SOCIETY TWO CONTRASTING VIEWS.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 16 2 46-48. 
BAHKTIN MIKHAIL. 1981. THE DIALOGIC IMAGINATION. AUSTIN UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS PRESS. 
--	1986. SPEECH GENRES AND OTHER LATE ESSAYS. AUSTIN UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS PRESS. 
BARCELLOS MARIO CESAR. 1995. ORIXAS SEGREDO VIDA. RIO JANEIRO PALLAS. 
BARLOW DAVID ED. 1993. CLINICAL HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS STEP-BY-STEP TREATMENT MANUAL. NEW YORK LONDON GUILFORD PRESS. 
BASTIDE ROGER. 2000 (1958). CANDOMBLE BAHIA. SAO PAULO COMPANHIA LETRAS. 
--	1978. THE AFRICAN RELIGIONS OF BRASIL. BALTIMORE LONDON JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
BEATA YEMANJA. 1997. CAROCO DENDE. RIO JANEIRO PALLAS. 
BEBBINGTON P. AND L. KUIPERS. 1994. “THE CLINICAL UTILITY OF EXPRESSED EMOTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA.” ACTA PSYCHIATRICA SCANDINAVICA 89 46-53. 
BENISTE JOSE. 2002. AGUAS OXALA. RIO JANEIRO BERTRAND BRASIL. 
--	1997. ORUN AIYE. RIO JANEIRO BERTRAND BRASIL. 
BENVENISTE EMILE. 1971 (1966). PROBLEMS IN GENERAL LINGUISTICS. CORAL GABLES UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI PRESS. 
BHABHA HOMI K. 1994. THE LOCATION OF CULTURE. LONDON NEW YORK ROUTLEDGE. 
BOTAS PAULO OLUSINADE. 1997. XIRE CIRANDA ENCANTADOS. SAO PAULO EDITORA AVE MARIA. 
--	1996. CARNE SAGRADO. PETROPOLIS BRAZIL VOZES. 
BOURDIEU PIERRE. 1993. THE FIELD OF CULTURAL PRODUCTION. NEW YORK COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
--	1991. LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLIC POWER. CAMBRIDGE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
--	1984. DISTINCTION. CAMBRIDGE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
--	1977. OUTLINE OF THEORY OF PRACTICE. CAMBRIDGE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
BOURDIEU PIERRE AND LOIC WACQUANT. 1999. “ON THE CUNNING OF IMPERIALIST REASON.” THEORY CULTURE AND SOCIETY 16 1 41-58. 
BRAGA JULIO. 1995. GAMELA FEITICO. SALVADOR BRAZIL EDULFA – EDITORA UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL BAHIA. 
--	1988. JOGO BUZIOS. SAO PAULO EDITORA BRASILIENSE. 
BROWN ROGER AND ALBERT GILMAN. 1960. “THE PRONOUNS OF POWER AND SOLIDARITY” IN STYLE IN LANGUAGE THOMAS A. SEBEOK EDITOR. CAMBRIDGE MIT PRESS. 
BRUCE STEVE. 1993. “RELIGION AND RATIONAL CHOICE CRITIQUE OF ECONOMIC EXPLANATIONS OF RELIGIOUS BEHAVIOR.” SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION 54 2 193-205. 
BUTT LESLIE. 2001. “THE SUFFERING STRANGER MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND INTERNATIONAL MORALITY.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 21 2. 
CARNEIRO EDSON. 1986. CANDOMBLES BAHIA. RIO JANEIRO CIVILIZACAO BRASILEIRA. 
CAROSO CARLOS ET AL. “WHEN HEALING IS PREVENTION AFRO-BRAZILIAN RELIGIOUS PRACTICES RELATED TO MENTAL DISORDERS AND ASSOCIATED STIGMA IN BAHIA BRAZIL. IN THE MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGIES IN BRAZIL ANNETTE LEIBING EDITOR. BERLIN VWB - VERLAG FÜR WISSENSCHAFT UND BILDUNG. 
CARR JOHN E. AND PETER P. VITALIANO. 1985. “THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS OF CONVERGING RESEARCH ON DEPRESSION AND THE CULTURE-BOUND SYNDROMES” IN CULTURE AND DEPRESSION ARTHUR KLEINMAN AND BYRON GOOD EDITORS. BERKELEY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. 
CERTEAU MICHEL DE. 1984. THE PRACTICE OF EVERYDAY LIFE. BERKELEY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. 
CLARK DAVID A. AND AARON T. BECK. 1999. SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS OF COGNITIVE THERAPY AND THEORY OF DEPRESSION. NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS INC. 
ESTROFF SUE. 1988. “WHOSE HEGEMONY CRITICAL COMMENTARY ON CRITICAL MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 2 4 421-426. 
ESTROFF SUE E. ET AL. 1991. “EVERYBODY’S GOT LITTLE MENTAL ILLNESS ACCOUNTS OF ILLNESS AND SELF AMONG PEOPLE WITH PERSISTENT SEVERE MENTAL ILLNESS.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 5 4 334-369. 
ETKIN NINA. 1992. “’SIDE EFFECTS’ CULTURAL CONSTRUCIONS AND REINTERPRETATIONS OF WESTERN PHARMACEUTICALS.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 6 2 99-113. 
EVANS-PRITCHARD E. E. 1976. WITCHCRAFT ORACLES AND MAGIC AMONG THE AZANDE. OXFORD CLARENDON PRESS. 
--	1965. THEORIES OF PRIMITIVE RELIGION. OXFORD CLARENDON PRESS. 
FINKE ROGER AND LAURENCE R. IANNACCONE. 1993. “SUPPLY-SIDE EXPLANATIONS FOR RELIGIOUS CHANGE.” ANNALS AAPSS 527 27-39. 
FINKLER KAJA. 1994. “SACRED HEALING AND BIOMEDICINE COMPARED.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 8 2 178-197. 
FLETCHER CHRISTOPHER M. AND LAURENCE KIRMAYER. 1997. “SPIRIT WORK NUNAVIMMIUT EXPERIENCES OF AFFLICTION AND HEALING.” ETUDES INUIT STUDIES 21 1-2 PP. 189-208. 
FONSECA MARIA NAZARETH SOARES ED. 2000. BRASIL AFRO BRASILEIRO. BELO HORIZONTE AUTENTICA. 
FOUCAULT MICHEL. 2002 (1970). THE ORDER OF THINGS. LONDON NEW YORK ROUTLEDGE. 
--	2002. POWER. LONDON PENGUIN. 
--	1995. DISCIPLINE AND PUNISH. NEW YORK VINTAGE BOOKS. 
--	1994. THE BIRTH OF THE CLINIC. NEW YORK VINTAGE BOOKS. 
--	1990 (1978). THE HISTORY OF SEXUALITY. NEW YORK VINTAGE BOOKS. 
--	1988. MADNESS AND CIVILIZATION. NEW YORK VINTAGE BOOKS. 
--	1987 (1954). MENTAL ILLNESS AND PSYCHOLOGY. BERKELEY LOS ANGELES LONDON UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. 
--	1980 (1972). POWER/KNOWLEDGE. NEW YORK PANTHEON BOOKS. 
FRANK JEROME D. AND JULIA B. FRANK. 1991. PERSUASION AND HEALING. BALTIMORE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
FRENCH JOHN D. 1999. “THE MISSTEPS OF ANTI-IMPERIALIST REASON PIERRE BOURDIEU LOIC WACQUANT AND MICHAEL HANCHARD’S ORPHEUS AND POWER.” WORKING PAPER #27 SEPTEMBER 1999. DURHAM DUKE-UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA PROGRESS IN LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES WORKING PAPER SERIES. 
FREYRE GILBERTO. 1986 (1945). THE MASTERS AND THE SLAVES. BERKELEY LOS ANGELES UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. 
GEEST SJAACK VAN DER. 1983. “ ANTHROPOLOGY AND PHARMACEUTICALS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 15 3 59-62. 
--	1984. “ANTHROPOLOGY AND PHARMACEUTICALS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES II.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 15 4 87-90. 
GEEST SJAACK VAN DER AND SUSAN REYNOLDS WHYTE. 1989. “THE CHARM OF MEDICINES METAPHORS AND METONYMS.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 3 4 345-367. 
GLASS-COFFIN BONNIE. 1992. “DISCOURSE DAÑO AND HEALING IN NORTH COASTAL PERU.” IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINE MARK NICHTER EDITOR. AMSTERDAM GORDON AND BREACH SCIENCE PUBLISHERS. 
GOOD BYRON. 1994. MEDICINE RATIONALITY AND EXPERIENCE AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE. CAMBRIDGE NEW YORK CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
HAERI NILOOFAR. 2003. SACRED LANGUAGE ORDINARY PEOPLE. NEW YORK PALGRAVE MACMILLAN. 
HAHN ROBERT A. 1981. “ON THE RATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF RATIONALITY.” CULTURE MEDICINE AND PSYCHIATRY 5 4 P. 344-347. 
HAHN ROBERT A. AND ARTHUR KLEINMAN. 1983. “BELIEF PATHOGEN BELIEF MEDICINE ‘VOODOO DEATH’ IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 14 4 P.3 16-19. 
HARVEY DAVID. 1990. THE CONDITION OF POSTMODERNITY. CAMBRIDGE AND OXFORD BLACKWELL. 
HEATH SHIRLEY BRICE. 1983. WAYS WITH WORDS. CAMBRIDGE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
HEGGENHOUGEN H. K. 1984. “TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND THE TREATMENT OF DRUG ADDICTS THREE EXAMPLES FROM SOUTH ASIA.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 16 1 3-7. 
HENNINGSEN PETER AND LAURENCE KIRMAYER. 2000. “MIND BEYOND THE NET IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE FOR CUTURAL PSYCHIATRY.” TRANSCULTURAL PSYCHIATRY 37 4 P. 467-494. 
HESS DAVID AND ROBERTO MATTA. 1995. THE BRAZILIAN PUZZLE. NEW YORK COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
HYMES DELL. 1974. FOUNDATIONS IN SOCIOLINGUISTICS. PHILADELPHIA UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA PRESS. 
--	1964. LANGUAGE IN CULTURE AND SOCIETY. NEW YORK HARPER AND ROW. 
IANNACCONE LAURENCE R. 1994. “WHY STRICT CHURCHES ARE STRONG.” AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY 99(5) 1180-1211. 
JAKOBSON ROMAN. 1960. “CLOSING STATEMENT LINGUISTICS AND POETICS” IN THOMAS SEBEOK ED. STYLE IN LANGUAGE. NEW YORK WILEY AND SONS. 
--	2002. FUNDAMENTALS OF LANGUAGE. BERLIN NEW YORK MOUTON. 
JAMESON FREDRIC. 1997. POSTMODERNISM OR THE CULTURAL LOGIC OF LATE CAPITALISM. DURHAM DUKE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
JEROLMACK COLIN AND DOUGLAS PORPORA. 2004. “RELIGION RATIONALITY AND EXPERIENCE RESPONSE TO THE NEW RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY OF RELIGION.” SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY 22 1. 
KIM JIM. 1993. PILLS PRODUCTION AND THE SYMBOLIC CODE PHARMACEUTICALS AND THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF MEANING. PH.D. THESIS HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 
KIRMAYER LAURENCE J. 2002. “PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY IN GLOBALIZING WORLD THE USE OF ANTIDEPRESSANTS IN JAPAN.” TRANSCULTURAL PSYCHIATRY 39 3 P. 295-322. 
--	1999. “MYTH AND RITUAL IN PSYCHOTHERAPY.” TRANSCULTURAL PSYCHIATRY 4 PP. 451-460. 
--	1998. “THE FATE OF CULTURE IN DSM-IV.” TRANSCULTURAL PSYCHIATRY 35 3 PP. 339-342. 
--	1993A. “FOLIE LA METAPHORE.” ANTHROPOLOGIE ET SOCIETES 17 1-2 PP. 43-55. 
--	1993B. “HEALING AND THE INVENTION OF METAPHOR THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SYMBOLS REVISITED.” CULTURE MEDICINE AND PSYCHIATRY 17 2 PP. 161-195. 
--	1992. “BODY INSISTENCE ON MEANING METAPHOR PRESENTATION AND REPRESENTATION IN ILLNESS EXPERIENCE.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 6 4 PP. 323-346. 
KLEINMAN ARTHUR. 1999. “EXPERIENCE AND ITS MORAL MODES CULTURE HUMAN CONDITIONS AND DISORDER.” THE TANNER LECTURES ON HUMAN VALUES NO. 20 GRETHE PETERSON EDITOR. SALT LAKE CITY UNIVERSITY OF UTAH PRESS. 
--	1995. WRITING AT THE MARGIN DISCOURSE BETWEEN ANTHROPOLOGY AND MEDICINE. BERKELEY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. 
--	1988. THE ILLNESS NARRATIVES SUFFERING HEALING AND THE HUMAN CONDITION. NEW YORK BASIC BOOKS. 
--	1980. PATIENTS AND HEALERS IN THE CONTEXT OF CULTURE. BERKELEY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. 
KLEINMAN ARTHUR AND BYRON GOOD. 1985. CULTURE AND DEPRESSION STUDIES IN THE ANTHROPOLOGY AND CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHIATRY OF AFFECT AND DISORDER. BERKELEY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. 
KLEINMAN ARTHUR AND DON SEEMAN. 1998. “THE POLITICS OF MORAL PRACTICE IN PSYCHOTHERAPY AND RELIGIOUS HEALING.” CONTRIBUTIONS TO INDIAN SOCIOLOGY 32 2 PP. 237-252. 
LACAN JACQUES. 1998 (1973). THE FOUR FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS. NEW YORK AND LONDON W. W. NORTON. 
LAKOFF GEORGE. 1987. WOMEN FIRE AND DANGEROUS THINGS. CHICAGO AND LONDON UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS. 
LAKOFF GEORGE AND MARK JOHNSON. 1980. METAPHORS WE LIVE BY. CHICAGO UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS. 
LEIBING ANNETTE EDITOR. 1997. THE MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGIES IN BRAZIL. BERLIN VERLAG FÜR WISSENSCHAFT UND BILDUNG. 
LIMA VIVALDO COSTA. 1977. FAMILIA-DO-SANTO NOS CANDOMBLES JEJE-NAGOS BAHIA. M.A. THESIS UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL BAHIA SALVADOR BAHIA BRAZIL. 
LYOTARD JEAN-FRANCOIS. 1997. THE POSTMODERN CONDITION. MINNEAPOLIS UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA PRESS. 
MARCUS GEORGE E. 1995. “ETHNOGRAPHY IN/OF THE WORLD SYSTEM THE EMERGENCE OF THE MULTI-SITED ETHNOGRAPHY.” ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANTHROPOLOGY 24 95-117. 
MARCUS GEORGE E. AND MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER. 1986. ANTHROPOLOGY CULTURAL CRITIQUE. CHICAGO AND LONDON UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS. 
MATORY JAMES LORAND. 2003. “GENDERED AGENCIES THE SECRETS SCHOLARS KEEP ABOUT YORUBA-ATLANTIC RELIGIONS.” IN GENDER AND HISTORY 15 3 409-439. 
--	2001. “THE ‘CULT OF NATIONS’ AND THE RITUALIZATION OF THEIR PURITY.” IN ATLANTIC GENEALOGIES IAN BAUCOM EDITOR. DURHAM DUKE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
--	1999. “THE ENGLISH PROFESSORS OF BRAZIL ON THE DIASPORIC ROOTS OF THE YORUBA NATION.” IN COMPARATIVE STUDIES IN SOCIETY AND HISTORY 41 1 PP. 72-103. 
MATTA ROBERTO DA. 1995. “ON THE BRAZILIAN URBAN POOR.” KELLOGG INSTITUTE DEMOCRARY AND SOCIAL POLICY SERIES WORKING PAPER NO. 10. 
--	1993. CONTA MENTIROSO. RIO JANEIRO ROCCO. 
--	1991. CARNAVAL ROGUES AND HEROES AN INTERPRETATION OF THE BRAZILIAN DILEMMA. NOTRE DAME UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME PRESS. 
--	1985. CASA RUA. SAO PAULO EDITORA BRASILENSE. 
MIGLIORE SAM. 1983. “EVIL EYE OR DELUSIONS ON THE “CONSISTENCY” OF FOLK MODELS.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 14 2 4-9. 
MOURA CARLOS EUGENIO MARCONDES EDITOR. 2000. CANDOMBLE TIPOS PSICOLOGICOS NAS RELIGOES AFROBRASILEIROS. RIO JANEIRO PALLAS. 
--	1998. LEOPARDO OLHOS FOGO. SAO PAULO ATELIE EDITORIAL. 
--	1994. SENHORAS PASSARO NOITE. SAO PAULO AXIS MUNDI. 
--	1981. OLOORISA. SAO PAULO EDITORA AGORA LTDA. 
NATHAN TOBIE. 1987. METAMORPHOSES L’IDENTITE. NOUVELLE REVUE D’ETHNOPSYCHIATRIE. PARIS LA PENSEE SAUVAGE. 
NERY MARIA EUGENIA VIANNA. 1977. PSIQUITRIA FOLCLORICA CANDOMBLE. M.A. THESIS UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL BAHIA SALVADOR BAHIA BRAZIL. 
NICHTER MARK EDITOR. 1992. ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINE. AMSTERDAM GORDON AND BREACH SCIENCE PUBLISHERS. 
NICHTER MARK. 1989. ANTHROPOLOGY AND INTERNATIONAL HEALTH SOUTH ASIAN CASE STUDIES. DORDRECHT BOSTON LONDON KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS. 
NICHTER MARK AND MARGARET LOCK. 2002. NEW HORIZONS IN MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY ESSAYS IN HONOR OF CHARLES LESLIE. LONDON AND NEW YORK ROUTLEDGE. 
NUNES MONICA OLIVEIRA. 1999. “A TEMPS ET CONTRE-TEMPS LES VOIX DES TAMBOURS DU CANDOMBLE DANS LA PSYCHOSE.” DOCTORAL DISSERTATION UNIVERSITE MONTREAL. 
O’NELL THERESA. 1996. DISCIPLINED HEARTS HISTORY IDENTITY AND DEPRESSION IN AN AMERICAN INDIAN COMMUNITY. BERKELEY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. 
PINHO A. RUBIM DE. N.D. “TRATAMENTOS RELIGIOSOS DOENCAS MENTAIS BAIRRO POBRE SALVADOR.” REVISTA PSIQUIATRIA Y PSICOLOGIA MEDICA 14. 
PORTES ALEJANDRO ET AL. 1992. “MENTAL ILLNESS AND HELP-SEEKING BEHAVIOR AMONG MARIEL CUBAN AND HAITIAN REFUGEES IN SOUTH FLORIDA.” JOURNAL OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR 33(4) 283-298. 
REBHUN L. A. 1994. “SWALLOWING FROGS ANGER AND ILLNESS IN NORTHEASTERN BRAZIL.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 8(4) 360-382. 
SAUSSURE FERDINAND DE. 1986 (1916). COURSE IN GENERAL LINGUISTICS. LA SALLE IL OPEN COURT. 
SCHEPER-HUGHES NANCY. 1992. DEATH WITHOUT WEEPING. BERKELEY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. 
SCHEPER-HUGHES NANCY AND MARGARET LOCK. 1985. “SPEAKING TRUTH TO ILLNESS METAPHORS REIFICATION AND PEDAGOGY FOR PATIENTS.” MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTERLY 17 5 137-140. 
SILVERSTEIN MICHAEL. 1976. “SHIFTERS LINGUISTIC CATEGORIES AND CULTURAL DESCRIPTION” IN MEANING IN ANTHROPOLOGY EDS. KEITH BASSO AND HENRY A. SELBY. ALBUQUERQUE UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO PRESS. 
STEPHEN MICHELE AND LUH KETUT SURYANI. 2000. “SHAMANISM PSYCHOSIS AND AUTONOMOUS IMAGINATION.” CULTURE MEDICINE AND PSYCHIATRY 24 5-20. 
TAMBIAH STANLEY. 1990. MAGIC SCIENCE RELIGION AND THE SCOPE OF RATIONALITY. CAMBRIDGE ENGLAND; NEW YORK  CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
WAFER JIM. 1991. THE TASTE OF BLOOD. PHILADELPHIA UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA PRESS. 
WATERS MALCOLM. 2001. GLOBALIZATION. LONDON NEW YORK ROUTLEDGE. 
WHORF BENJAMIN LEE. 1998 (1956). LANGUAGE THOUGHT AND REALITY. CAMBRIDGE MIT PRESS. 
WILCE JAMES M. JR. 1998. “THE PRAGMATICS OF MADNESS PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF BANGLADESHI WOMAN’S ‘ABERRANT’ LAMENT.” CULTURE MEDICINE AND PSYCHIATRY 22 1-54. 
WILTON ROBERT. 2004. “PUTTING POLICY INTO PRACTICE POVERTY AND PEOPLE WITH SERIOUS MENTAL ILLNESS.” SOCIAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE 58 1 25-39. 
